99 Fun Facts About Graphic Design

Helvetica was originally released in 1957 under what name?

Neue Haas Grotesk was drawn in 1957 by Max Miedinger with Eduard Hoffmann at the Haas Type Foundry in Münchenstein; parent company Stempel renamed it Helvetica in 1960 for wider marketing.

The name 'Helvetica' is Latin for what?

Helvetica means Swiss: Helvetia was the Roman name for the region, and the name was adopted in 1960 to trade on the country's reputation for modern graphic design when the typeface was marketed abroad.

Which of these is a hallmark of the Swiss or International Typographic Style?

Asymmetric layouts on a grid with flush-left text, set ragged-right in sans-serif faces such as Akzidenz-Grotesk, defined the style that Emil Ruder and Armin Hofmann taught in Basel in the 1950s.

Futura, the geometric sans-serif released in 1927, was designed by whom?

Paul Renner drew Futura for the Bauer foundry between 1924 and 1927, building it from near-perfect circles, triangles and squares in the spirit of the New Frankfurt housing programme.

The serif face Stanley Morison created for a newspaper in 1931 took its name from which paper?

The Times of London commissioned the typeface after Stanley Morison of Monotype criticised its printing; Victor Lardent of the paper's advertising department drew it under Morison's direction, based on Plantin, and it debuted in 1932.

Gill Sans (1928) grew out of Edward Johnston's corporate typeface for which organisation?

Eric Gill had assisted Edward Johnston on the London Underground lettering as a young artist; Stanley Morison of Monotype then commissioned Gill Sans, released in 1928, as a more classical development of that sans.

Garamond typefaces are named after a Parisian engraver of which century?

Claude Garamond cut his roman types in Paris in the 16th century, dying in 1561; many later 'Garamond' revivals were actually based on the 17th-century punchcutter Jean Jannon.

Adobe's 1989 typeface by Carol Twombly, ubiquitous on film posters, is based on the inscription on what?

Trajan's Column in Rome, dedicated in AD 113, carries the inscription whose Roman square capitals Carol Twombly traced for her 1989 typeface Trajan.

Vincent Connare designed Comic Sans in 1994 for which software product, then missed the deadline?

Microsoft Bob's cartoon dog Rover spoke in speech bubbles set in a formal serif; Connare drew a replacement inspired by Watchmen and The Dark Knight Returns, but it missed Bob's release and shipped with Windows 95 Plus! instead.

In typography, what does 'kerning' adjust?

The space between two specific characters is what kerning adjusts, such as tucking an A under a V; in metal type a kern was the part of a letter that overhung its body, from the French 'carne', a projecting angle.

In the CMYK printing model, what does the K stand for?

K stands for Key (black): the key plate carried the detail and the other plates were registered to it; CMYK is subtractive, with inks reducing the light reflected from white paper.

The placeholder text 'Lorem ipsum' is a scrambled version of a work by which Roman author?

Cicero wrote De finibus bonorum et malorum in 45 BC; a garbled passage from its first book became the printers' placeholder, and Letraset transfer sheets spread it in the 1960s.

Wim Crouwel's 1967 experimental typeface, built only from horizontal and vertical strokes, is called what?

New Alphabet was Wim Crouwel's 1967 response to early cathode-ray typesetting: every letter is built from horizontal and vertical strokes on a grid, so it is barely legible and was meant as a provocation rather than a text face.

Paul Rand's defining corporate identity, designed in 1956 and striped in 1972, was for which company?

IBM asked Paul Rand to redraw its logo in 1956; his striped version of 1972 used horizontal bars as a half-toning trick to lighten the heavy letters, and eight-bar and thirteen-bar forms exist.

Saul Bass's first celebrated title sequence, a cut-out of a heroin addict's arm, was for which 1955 film?

The Man with the Golden Arm (1955) opened with Bass's jagged white cut-out of an arm for Otto Preminger; he went on to title North by Northwest and Psycho and to design corporate logos.

Which of these logos was designed by Saul Bass's firm?

The AT&T globe (1983), the striped sphere nicknamed the Death Star, was created by Bass's firm for the company after the Bell breakup; the firm had also drawn the 1969 Bell System bell and the Geffen Records logo.

Where did Milton Glaser sketch the I Love New York logo in 1976?

In the back of a taxi, Glaser drew the I Love New York mark in red crayon on scrap paper in 1976 for a state tourism campaign run by the agency Wells Rich Greene.

Milton Glaser co-founded which influential New York studio in 1954?

Push Pin Studios was founded in 1954 by Milton Glaser, Seymour Chwast, Reynold Ruffins and Edward Sorel; Glaser stayed until 1974, and his 1966 Bob Dylan poster came out of that period.

Massimo Vignelli's 1972 New York subway map was criticised for what?

Sacrificing geographical accuracy for clarity was the charge: the 1972 diagram squared off Central Park and spaced stations evenly, and the MTA replaced it in 1979; Vignelli also designed the subway signage at Unimark.

How much was Carolyn Davidson paid in 1971 for designing the Nike Swoosh?

$35 was Davidson's fee for the 1971 Swoosh, billed at two dollars an hour as a Portland State design student; in 1983 Phil Knight gave her a gold Swoosh ring and Nike shares.

What is hidden in the negative space between the E and the x of the FedEx logo?

A right-pointing arrow sits in the white space between the E and the x; Lindon Leader of Landor drew a proprietary blend of Univers and Futura in 1994 so the two letters would meet cleanly.

The Coca-Cola logo, created in 1885 by bookkeeper Frank Mason Robinson, uses which handwriting style?

Spencerian script, the formal business hand taught from Platt Rogers Spencer's copybooks, was the dominant American penmanship of the 1800s; Robinson, who also coined the name, lettered the logo in it.

Susan Kare drew the first Macintosh icons on what?

Graph paper was her pixel grid: Kare sketched 32-by-32 squares in a $2.50 notebook in 1983, producing the scissors for Cut, the paintbrush for MacPaint and the Happy Mac.

Peter Saville designed record sleeves for Joy Division and New Order as a partner in which label?

Factory Records was founded in Manchester in 1978 by Tony Wilson and Alan Erasmus, with Saville as the art-director partner; his Closer sleeve, a photograph of an entombed Christ from a Genoa tomb, caused unease after Ian Curtis's death.

Neville Brody made his name as art director of which British style magazine in the early 1980s?

The Face, the London style magazine Nick Logan launched in 1980, had Brody as art director from 1981 to 1986; he then art-directed Arena and designed the typefaces Industria and Blur.

David Carson, the 'grunge typography' pioneer of Ray Gun magazine, had which earlier career?

Professional surfer was Carson's first career, with a top-ten world ranking; a sociology graduate who taught high school, he art-directed Beach Culture before Ray Gun launched in 1992.

Shepard Fairey's Obama 'Hope' poster was based on a photograph taken by whom?

AP freelancer Mannie Garcia took the April 2006 photograph at the National Press Club; Fairey's stencil portrait in red, beige and blue ran with the words 'progress', 'hope' or 'change', and the AP's copyright claim was settled in 2011.

Which New York firm, founded in 1957, designed logos for Chase, Mobil, PBS, NBC and National Geographic?

Chermayeff & Geismar began in 1957 as Brownjohn, Chermayeff & Geismar; Yale graduates Ivan Chermayeff and Tom Geismar drew the Chase octagon in 1961 and the Mobil wordmark with its red o in 1964.

Jan Tschichold, author of Die neue Typographie, later directed the visual identity of which publisher?

Penguin Books hired Tschichold in 1947; over three years he reset hundreds of titles and wrote the Penguin Composition Rules. He had fled to Basel in 1933 after a Nazi arrest and later designed Sabon.

Herbert Bayer's 'universal' typeface for the Bauhaus was notable for what?

Being all lowercase was the point: Bayer's 1925 Universal dropped capitals as redundant, built its letters from circles and straight lines, and was never cast as real type; Gropius had made him head of the school's printing and advertising workshop.

The Bauhaus was founded in 1919 by Walter Gropius in which city?

Weimar was where Gropius merged the Grand-Ducal art school and crafts school into the Bauhaus in 1919; it moved to Dessau in 1925 and Berlin in 1932 before closing under Nazi pressure in 1933.

Josef Müller-Brockmann's long-running poster series was for which venue?

The Zurich Tonhalle commissioned Müller-Brockmann's concert posters from 1950, including the Musica Viva series of pure typographic grids; he later wrote Grid Systems in Graphic Design (1981).

Bezier curves, the backbone of vector graphics, are named after an engineer who used them to design what?

Renault car bodies were what Pierre Bezier modelled with the curves in the 1960s for its UNISURF CAD system; Paul de Casteljau at Citroën had found the same mathematics in 1959, but his work stayed unpublished for decades.

PostScript, the page description language behind desktop publishing, was created at which company?

Adobe was founded in 1982 by John Warnock and Charles Geschke, who had left Xerox PARC after its Interpress language stalled; PostScript, released in 1984, drove the LaserWriter printer in 1985.

Desktop publishing took off in 1985 with the Apple LaserWriter and which software from Aldus?

PageMaker, released by Aldus in July 1985, let users lay out pages on screen and print them through PostScript; Aldus founder Paul Brainerd coined the term desktop publishing.

Photoshop was created in 1987 by which pair of brothers?

The Knolls wrote it in 1987: Thomas Knoll, a Michigan PhD student, built the program first called Display, and his brother John at Industrial Light & Magic pushed it toward the product that shipped commercially in 1990.

Since which year has the Pantone Color Institute named a Color of the Year?

2000 was the first Color of the Year, Cerulean Blue, chosen in December 1999; the programme came decades after Lawrence Herbert bought the firm's technology in 1962 for $50,000 and renamed it Pantone.

Where is Pantone headquartered?

Carlstadt, New Jersey, a few miles west of Manhattan, is Pantone's home; the Levine brothers' Manhattan print shop hired Herbert part-time in 1956, and X-Rite bought the company in 2007.

Who developed movable metal type in Mainz in the mid-15th century, transforming graphic communication?

Johannes Gutenberg cast individual metal letters in Mainz and printed his 42-line Bible around 1455; the Chinese artisan Bi Sheng had made ceramic movable type around 1040, four centuries earlier.

Adobe Illustrator, released in 1987, was originally developed for which computer?

Apple Macintosh users got Illustrator in 1987 as a drawing front end for PostScript; the company had built its Bezier tools in-house for font design and turned them into a product, with a Windows version following in 1989.

Paula Scher's 1994 identity of bold wood-type lettering was for which New York theatre?

The Public Theater hired Paula Scher in 1994, after George C. Wolfe became its producer, and her crowded condensed wood-type letters in black and white became the model for the street-poster look of theatre branding.

Which industrial designer, who shaped the InterCity 125 train, co-founded Pentagram in 1972?

Kenneth Grange, the industrial designer behind the Kenwood Chef mixer and the nose of British Rail's InterCity 125, was one of Pentagram's five founding partners in 1972 alongside Alan Fletcher, Theo Crosby, Colin Forbes and Mervyn Kurlansky.

Otl Aicher led the design team and pictogram system for which Olympic Games?

Munich 1972 had Aicher as chief designer, with a rainbow palette, Univers typography and stick-figure pictograms; he had co-founded the Ulm School of Design with Max Bill and his wife Inge Scholl, sister of the White Rose's Hans and Sophie.

The Isotype pictorial-statistics system, first called the Vienna Method, was developed by whom?

Otto Neurath devised the method in the 1920s at Vienna's Social and Economic Museum, with woodcut artist Gerd Arntz drawing its standardised symbols; the name Isotype was adopted after the team moved to The Hague in 1934.

The influential design magazine Emigre was founded in 1984 in which city?

Berkeley, California, was where Dutch émigré Rudy VanderLans launched Emigre in 1984; his partner Zuzana Licko drew its early bitmap typefaces, and the magazine's type foundry outlived the final issue, number 69, in 2005.

Which designer created the Apple logo in 1977 while working at Regis McKenna?

Rob Janoff, an art director at the Regis McKenna agency, drew the rainbow-striped bitten apple in 1977; he said the bite was for scale, so the fruit would not be mistaken for a cherry.

Alexey Brodovitch was art director of which American fashion magazine from 1934 to 1958?

Harper's Bazaar hired Brodovitch in 1934 under editor Carmel Snow, and over 24 years his spreads shaped Richard Avedon and Irving Penn; he had first won notice in 1924 Paris with a Le Bal Banal poster placed ahead of Picasso's.

Which brand consultancy designed the controversial logo for the London 2012 Olympic Games?

Wolff Olins, founded in London in 1965 by Michael Wolff and Wally Olins, unveiled the jagged 2012 mark in 2007 to wide derision; the agency also created identities for Orange, Tata Group and the Unilever U.

Who first launched the First Things First manifesto, criticising consumerist design, in 1964?

Ken Garland wrote the manifesto in late 1963 and published it in 1964 with 21 co-signatories, urging designers to turn from advertising trivia to useful work; Emigre issue 51 republished an updated version in 1999.

Which symbol did Harvey Ball draw in ten minutes in 1963 for badges at an insurance company?

The smiley face was meant to lift staff morale after a merger. It earned Harvey Ball just $45, he never trademarked it, and more than 50 million smiley buttons had been sold by 1971.

Which symbol did Gerald Holtom design in 1958 by combining the flag semaphore signals for the letters N and D?

The peace sign began as the badge of Britain's Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, which explains the N and D. Holtom said its drooping lines also showed a person in despair.

Which emblem did student Gary Anderson create in 1970 to win a design contest run by a packaging company?

The recycling symbol won Gary Anderson a $2,500 scholarship, and its endless loop is folded like a Möbius strip. It was never trademarked, so anyone may print it.

Which scientist joined the red and violet ends of the spectrum into a colour circle in his 1704 treatise Opticks?

Isaac Newton cut his colour circle into unequal slices, sized like the intervals of a musical scale. Every colour wheel a designer has spun since descends from it.

Which purplish-red colour, a standard printing ink, is named after an 1859 battle near a town in northern Italy?

Magenta was a new dye first sold as fuchsine, then renamed to celebrate a French and Sardinian victory over Austria at the Battle of Magenta. It is one of the three coloured inks of colour printing.

Which band paid art student John Pasche £50 in 1970 for a logo their singer wanted based on the goddess Kali?

The Rolling Stones got their tongue and lips after Mick Jagger suggested the tongue of the Hindu goddess Kali. In 2008 the Victoria and Albert Museum bought the original artwork for £51,000.

The set of 176 mobile-phone emoji now held by New York's Museum of Modern Art was drawn in 1999 in which country?

Japan is where Shigetaka Kurita drew the set for the phone company NTT Docomo. The word emoji is Japanese for picture character, and its likeness to the word emotion is pure coincidence.

James Montgomery Flagg used his own face for which figure on a famous 1917 US Army recruiting poster?

Uncle Sam got Flagg's own features, aged and given a white goatee, because the artist wanted to avoid the trouble of hiring a model. More than four million copies were printed during the First World War.

Which keyboard character began in ancient Roman handwriting as a joined-up form of the letters E and T?

The ampersand spells et, the Latin word for and. Children once recited it after Z as a 27th letter, and its name is a slurring of the phrase 'and per se and'.

Which colour model do phone and TV screens use, adding three primaries of light together to make white?

RGB stands for red, green and blue, and it is called additive because the coloured lights sum towards white. Printing inks work the other way, soaking up light instead.

Which term describes colour pairs, such as red and green, that sit opposite each other on a painter's colour wheel?

Complementary colours create the strongest contrast when placed side by side, yet mixing them cancels both out into a grey. They are also known as opposite colours.

Web colour codes such as #FF0000 for pure red are written in which number system?

Hexadecimal counts in sixteens, so two digits per colour can run from 00 to FF. The six digits of a web code set the strength of red, green and blue, in that order.

Which web image format, written as XML text, can be scaled to any size without losing quality?

SVG stores shapes as instructions instead of a fixed mosaic of dots, so a logo stays crisp on a phone or a billboard. Its files can even be opened and changed in a plain text editor.

Which image format, released by CompuServe in 1987, is limited to 256 colours but can hold simple animations?

GIF was meant to be said with a soft G: its chief creator Steve Wilhite wanted the name to echo the peanut butter brand Jif. He said so again when accepting a Webby lifetime achievement award in 2013.

Which Photoshop feature, added in version 3.0 in 1994, lets designers stack and edit parts of an image separately?

Layers are stacked like sheets of transparent film, so a change can be made to one without touching the rest. They arrived in September 1994, four years after Photoshop 1.0.

Which online graphic design platform did Melanie Perkins co-found in Perth, Australia, in 2013?

Canva was valued at US$1 billion in January 2018, five years after its launch. It offers ready-made templates for posters, presentations and social media posts.

Which printing method, invented by the actor Alois Senefelder in 1796, relies on the fact that oil repels water?

Lithography takes its name from the Greek for stone, because the image was drawn in grease on a slab of smooth limestone. It was first used mostly for sheet music and maps.

Which stencil printing technique did Andy Warhol adopt in 1962 for his repeated portraits of Marilyn Monroe?

Silkscreen let Warhol repeat one publicity photo from the 1953 film Niagara as the fifty images of his Marilyn Diptych. Ink is forced through a fine mesh wherever a stencil leaves it open.

Which print term describes artwork extended about an eighth of an inch past the trim line to avoid white edges?

Bleed gives the guillotine a margin of error, because paper shifts slightly as a stack is cut. Without it, a sliver of unprinted paper can show along the edge.

Alphonse Mucha's posters of the actress Sarah Bernhardt are classics of which flowing, floral style of the 1890s?

Art Nouveau found its poster star by chance: Mucha's first Bernhardt design, for the play Gismonda, was a rush job ordered at Christmas 1894 with a New Year deadline.

Which French artist's 1891 poster of the cancan dancer La Goulue made the Moulin Rouge dance hall the talk of Paris?

Toulouse-Lautrec had never made a poster before this one, which followed an earlier Moulin Rouge design by Jules Chéret. About 3,000 copies went up around Paris.

Alexander Rodchenko's 1924 poster of a woman shouting through a cupped hand is a landmark of which Soviet art movement?

Constructivism counted Rodchenko among its founders, and in 1921 he gave up painting to concentrate on graphic design. The shouting woman was an advertisement for a publishing house.

Which movement did Piet Mondrian and Theo van Doesburg launch in 1917, allowing only straight lines and primary colours?

De Stijl, Dutch for The Style, was also the name of the journal van Doesburg published to spread the group's ideas. Mondrian's own rules permitted only squares and rectangles.

Which technique of pasting photographs together did Berlin Dadaists John Heartfield and George Grosz pioneer in 1916?

Photomontage became a political weapon in Heartfield's hands: he fled Berlin in 1933, and his images attacking fascism later put him high on a Gestapo most-wanted list.

Wes Wilson's melting lettering on Fillmore concert posters defined the 1960s psychedelic style of which American city?

San Francisco had a 'Big Five' of poster artists, and Wilson said he wanted his lettering to be something people had to stop to figure out.

Which designer of floral wallpapers co-founded the Kelmscott Press in 1891 to print books by hand in a medieval style?

William Morris thought machine-printed books were shoddy, so each Kelmscott title was printed by hand in editions of about 300. He even drew his own typefaces, tracing enlarged photographs of old ones.

Which 1980s design group, led by Ettore Sottsass, took its name from a Bob Dylan song playing at its first meeting?

Memphis got its name because the Dylan song was playing on repeat that evening in December 1980. The Italian group's loud style then spread through the pop culture of the following decade.

Jim Fitzpatrick's two-tone 1968 poster turned Alberto Korda's photograph of which revolutionary into a worldwide icon?

Che Guevara spread so far because Fitzpatrick gave up copyright so that left-wing groups could use the image freely. In 2011 he moved to sign the image over to Guevara's family in Cuba.

Which British pop artist designed the collage cover of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper album with Jann Haworth?

Peter Blake suggested surrounding the band with cardboard cut-outs of a crowd of their heroes. The finished collage holds 57 photographs and nine waxworks.

Which studio, named after graffiti on its founders' door, designed the cover of Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon?

Hipgnosis began when Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell were asked by their friends in Pink Floyd to design the band's second album sleeve. The name puns on hypnosis, joining hip to gnosis, or ancient learning.

The adman George Lois designed more than 90 covers between 1962 and 1973 for which American magazine?

Esquire covers by Lois came to be treated as art: the Museum of Modern Art put 32 of them on show in 2008. Former colleagues later disputed how much of the work was his alone.

Which US agency's red 1975 logotype was nicknamed 'the worm' by staff who preferred its older 'meatball' emblem?

NASA dropped the worm in 1992 to lift the spirits of employees who had never accepted it, then revived it in 2020 as a secondary logo.

Jamie Reid's ransom-note lettering, cut from newspaper headlines, became the visual signature of which 1970s punk band?

Sex Pistols sleeves made Reid's name, though he had devised the ransom-note style years earlier for a radical political magazine he founded in 1970.

Which Scottish engineer, once an assistant to James Watt, invented the bar chart in 1786 and the pie chart in 1801?

William Playfair argued that charts communicate better than tables of data. His other careers included silversmith, banker, land speculator, convict and blackmailer.

Which German word names the school of psychology behind design principles such as proximity, similarity and closure?

Gestalt means form, and its psychologists argued that people perceive a whole pattern before its parts. The idea is often summed up as the whole being different from the sum of its parts.

Which Greek letter stands for the golden ratio of about 1.618, a proportion prized by many page designers?

Phi is said to have been chosen by the inventor Mark Barr, partly because it begins the name of the Greek sculptor Phidias. Barr himself doubted that Phidias ever used the proportion.

Which machine, first used at the New York Tribune in 1886, cast a whole row of metal type from a keyboard?

Linotype is short for line of type, because the machine cast each line as a single slug of hot metal. Its operator worked a keyboard of 90 characters.

Which former Bauhaus teacher wrote the 1963 classic Interaction of Color and painted the series Homage to the Square?

Josef Albers used his nested squares to explore how colours change one another. After the Nazis closed the Bauhaus in 1933 he emigrated to the United States, where he later led the design department at Yale.

Which technique smooths the jagged, stair-step edges of on-screen type and curves by blending the boundary pixels?

Anti-aliasing softens the so-called jaggies, and it is often applied to on-screen lettering so that it looks closer to ink printed on a page.

Which interface style, abandoned by the iPhone in 2013, makes apps imitate real objects such as a paper desk calendar?

Skeuomorphism comes from Greek words for tool and shape, and it helps newcomers by making software look like familiar things. Its 2013 replacement was a flat look with brighter colours.

Which page-design program held an estimated 95% of its market in the 1990s before losing ground to InDesign?

QuarkXPress stumbled in 2002, when its new version failed to support Mac OS X while its rival's did. A widening price gap then sped up the switch.

Which print effect, caused by ink spreading as it soaks into the sheet, makes images look darker than intended?

Dot gain is worst on uncoated stock, which absorbs more ink than coated stock. Printers measure it by comparing each digital dot with the inked dot that lands on the sheet.

Which brand of dry rub-down transfer sheets, launched in 1961, let designers and punks set headlines without a printer?

Letraset suited punk's do-it-yourself spirit because it was cheap and needed no printer or publisher. Computers ended its reign, and the company moved into digital fonts.

Reid Miles designed hundreds of album covers in the 1950s and 1960s as art director of which jazz label?

Blue Note covers made Miles famous, yet he preferred classical music and gave away or sold most of the free copies he was sent.

Which rippling interference pattern, named after a watered silk fabric, can appear when a printed photograph is scanned?

Moiré arises when two fine patterns of dots or lines overlap slightly out of step, as when a scanner meets the dots of a printed picture. The French word first described rippled silk.

Designer Tibor Kalman co-created the magazine Colors in 1991 for which Italian clothing company?

Benetton funded Colors as a magazine about the rest of the world, printed in bilingual editions. Kalman's thirteen issues were later ranked among the best magazines of all time.

Which punctuation mark did adman Martin Speckter propose in 1962 for ending a surprised rhetorical question?

Interrobang joins interrogatio, Latin for a rhetorical question, to bang, printers' slang for the exclamation mark. Speckter chose the name from suggestions sent in by readers.

Which Russian artist's 1919 poster drives a red triangle into a white circle to support the Bolsheviks in the civil war?

El Lissitzky used the red wedge to stand for the Bolsheviks piercing their White opponents. The image became famous in the West after he moved to Germany in 1921, and it still turns up on album covers.

Which term for the gap between lines of type comes from the metal strips printers once slid between the rows?

Leading is said 'ledding', not 'leeding', because the strips were made of the metal lead. Slipping them between lines became popular in the eighteenth century.

Which style of type, first used by the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius in 1500, was designed to imitate handwriting?

Italic type takes its name from Italy, and it was cut for Aldus by Francesco Griffo, who later claimed the idea as his own. Its first whole volume was a small edition of Virgil made to be held in the hand.